Page 316 - Perú indígena y virreinal

the village of Renedo de Cabuérniga in Cantabria (also in Northern Spain) or the candeleros—candelabra known as “mariolas”—in Seville Cathedral as well as items of everyday domestic use; soup tureens, chocolate and coffee pots, serving platters and braziers in forged silver, decorated with either fret-work or filigree-work and pieces related to age old customs such as the mate drinking ceremony (a tea-like infusion) with its requisite water heaters known as pavas con hornillo—oven kettles or pieces from the equestrian world, including estribos—stirrups for both sexes and riding whips known as fustas or chicotes.
In both pre-Hispanic Peru, and that of the Viceroys, gold and silverware shone with its own resplendence, thanks to the skilful hands of its craftsmen that turned precious metals into a “splendid art” with an excellence all of its own. Nevertheless, it was during the colonial period that craftsmanship in silver and gold reached its zenith, reflecting the desires of a people who made their streets, churches houses a true reflection of their values, the perfect showcase to promote their refulgent and splendid way of life, one in which gold and silver were not merely symbols of power and distinction, but also useful objects with their own intrinsic value, which would led them as well to thesaurization.
day to day life
Gloria Espinosa Spínola
The originality of Peruvian Art during the Viceroyalty has within the context of daily and private life one of its most significant and complex facets, as it shows us, through its material, typological and technical wealth, the state of artistic production in the new American society, one that did not correspond to either European or pre-Hispanic parameters but evolved to become a unique cultural hybrid. We can therefore see how indigenous trades and techniques not only survived, but also grew, enriched as they were by diverse European and Hispanic influences and how the tastes and concepts of the dominant culture were either imposed or diminished, or how objects pertaining to pre-Hispanic traditions were redefined both symbolically and functionally as a new aesthetic, the fruit of cultural syncretism, emerged.
Indigenous imagery lived on in series of pieces that were held in high regard in the pre-Hispanic period, as in the case of the silver or gold ceremonial chalices, or aquillas and queros, their equivalent in wood as well as their ceramic ware and textiles. This would have been due either to their ritualistic, or even magical value or for their strictly economic value within local communities. In these objects we can still see the prevalence of bright colours and geometrical designs, characterised by their use of an indigenous decorative vocabulary, often highly symbolic, which would, nevertheless be replaced over the years with figurative motifs from European culture.
This was the case with their fabric, which continued to have the same monetary value as they had had during Inca times, as well as the elements that defined a person’s social standing and sexual identity. Among the traditional clothes they wore, the poncho for men and the long skirts and shawls for women stand out. Within these norms regarding clothing, a peculiar case was that of the “tapadas” (covered women), who covered their entire faces, save for one eye, making their identification when they walked in the streets immensely difficult. The anonymity and freedom that this afforded these women caused the authorities to repeatedly prohibit them, seeing this attire as an affront to feminine honesty and integrity, to the point that these mysterious veiled figures became a kind of prototype for all “flirtatious women” that wandered the streets of Lima.
Similarly, other aspects of pre-Hispanic day to day life lived on during the Viceroyalty era, such as those customs relating to food and drink, as well as other substances, resulting in the production of a whole collection of utensils, some of which are unique to Peru. An evident example of this was the ingestion of mate, a tea-like infusion and coca, whose leaves were reserved in pre-Hispanic times for the Royal Family and chiefs. During the era of the Viceroys, however, its use spread to other social classes as a result of its
stimulating properties. For the storing and preparation of mate, on the other hand, receptacles known as yerberas and coqueras, water heaters called pavas-hornillos or “oven kettles” and the round drinking containers, also known as mates were produced, of which there are still some magnificent examples, crafted in silver.
Whilst mentioning Peruvian silverware, we should not overlook the domestic utensils most typical of the dominant classes, such as those used in their service—trays, serving dishes, plates, coffee and chocolate pots and soup tureens as well as ornaments and other pieces from daily life: lanterns, candlesticks and braziers—all served to demonstrate the high standards of living enjoyed by these elite groups, and their tastes, which tended towards luxury and ostentation. A similar approach dominated other genres, amongst which we should highlight those related to recreational activities such as the beautifully delicate stirrups for girls and ladies or those related to festivities and celebrations such as the special rods that were a part of dances and balls and other symbols of power and prestige, especially the authoritative staffs that were typical of the indigenous nobility.
This general panorama would not be complete without mention of the diverse range of experiences to be found within the context of popular religion and domestic devotion as in the case of paintings, sculpture and mobile altar pieces, many of which were made in multi-coloured wood and plaster as well as papier-mâché, fabric soaked in glue or stone from Huamanga, these latter two media being unique to Peru. These are pieces whose functional values and symbolic content changed over the course of the Viceroyalty, becoming syncretic versions in which Christian images and practices were augmented with, and enriched by local symbols, character and customs.
numismatic
Albert Estrada
The wealth of precious metals found by the Spanish conquistadors in the Americas, and especially by Pizarro’s men in Peru is legendary, living on today in a number of popular Spanish sayings. It didn’t take long for this vast quantity of metal to be turned into bars, ingots and, obviously enough, coins.
Nevertheless, the settlers brought from Castile the first coins that were used in Peru. In no time at all it became evident that they would be insufficient for day-to-day necessities. This lack of hard cash paved the way for an economy that used bartering, weighed gold and silver, and finally, even woven fabric and coca leaves alongside minted coins.
The difficulty of providing hard currency from Spain to all the territories that had been acquired, along with the abundance of raw materials in the ground, led to the founding of the first mints on the continent. In 1535, the first was founded in Mexico, followed by one in Santo Domingo in 1542 and Lima’s in 1565. The establishment of the Peruvian mint in Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty, was a step that was not taken lightly by the Spanish monarchy, as can be seen in a report to the Council of the Indies, set up by Charles V in 1551, defending the wisdom of its foundation.
The Lima Mint had a long history. Its life was plagued by setbacks, although it outlived the Viceroyalty. What is more, Lima and a number of its working tools were indirectly linked to the founding of the mint at Potosí, established between the end of 1573 and the beginning of 1575. Until the creation of the Viceroyalty of La Plata in 1776, incorporating Potosí, the city had been the home of Peru’s principal mint. It was not until that year that year that Lima gained its numismatic supremacy.
In its founding statute it was decreed that Lima was only to mint silver coins. In fact gold coins were not struck until the reign of Charles II. In Lima, as in Potosí and other Latin American mints, macuquina coins were produced, that is to say, struck with hammer blows on blanks of varying shape and thickness. These were coins of gold and silver that had a rough and ready feel to them in which the method of production was evident on
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