Page 286 - Perú indígena y virreinal

of scene in which one or two small modelled figures may appear in the upper part. This type of bottle, featuring small modelled figures, is highly characteristic of Moche and Chimu pottery, although examples can also be found in Vicús, Recuay and Sicán culture, this being more widespread, once again, in the northern styles.
The Ecuadorian Formative Period also provided the origin of another unique form, the double bottle, which may present similar depictions on both receptacles, or may preserve one receptacle in the form of a bottle and adapt the other to a sculptured depiction. Doubles bottles can be found in Vicús, Recuay, Lima, Chimu and Ica-Chincha styles, among others.
The combination of painting and modelling is shared by many pottery styles, and the appearance of modelled decorative elements is typical of Peruvian pottery in general. The craftsman may simply model the spout, generally a straight spout, part of which was made into a head, with the rest of the represented figure being completed with paint. For example, a head may be painted around a cup, with the protruding parts of the face such as the nose and the ears being modelled in this case.
However, in addition to the striking form-based effects of Peruvian pottery, there are other even more surprising questions that relate to the complex world reflected in this form of art and the purpose all these vessels served, the majority of which show no apparent traces of use.
Although we can never be entirely sure with regard to these points, some answers seem to be connected to the complex workings of the society in which they were created. Here we are dealing with a luxury-type pottery, associated with the ruling élites, with ceremonial practices in the widest sense of the term. In some cases we are well aware of their purpose due to historical documentation, as in the case of some Inca pottery items. The Inca keros were ritual cups, used by the Inca and the nobility in certain ceremonies in which the chicha (a beverage) was drunk that had been transferred from the aríbalos. Pucus were plates used for offerings, generally coca leaves that were burned and offered to the gods. Pajchas, that were also made of wood, were complex receptacles featuring long spouts and were used in ritual libations.
Although we find some quite stylized head-like and animal-like vessels, Inca decoration was not especially representational. Geometric designs tended to predominate, although we also find stylized depictions of birds, insects and plant motifs, whilst dark colours predominate. Their perfect form, decorative sobriety and the rigid compartmentalization of the decorative fields in which the designs are distributed all reflect, on a small scale, the cast-iron social organization of the Inca Empire.
In other cases it is the archaeological context that reveals the possible function of these pottery items. At the sanctuary of Chavin de Huantar, the thousands of pottery fragments found, mainly in what is known as the Gallery of Offerings, tell us that, in this context, these ceramic items served mainly as an offering. Four typical Chavin styles have been defined, but in general terms we can talk about a type of pottery that is black, glossy, featuring sharp decoration, modelled or completely sculptured, in whose depictions we can recognize the iconographic themes present in the sculptural work found at the sanctuary itself, including mythical beings of dragon-like or cat-like appearance and birds of prey. The meaning of Chavin pottery must be understood within the context of the purpose of the sanctuary, based on the gods worshipped at these sites, whose depictions can be found on all kinds of support.
Some Wari styles dating from the Middle Horizon Period can also be understood as being offerings or bearers of a new message of a religious kind. This is the case with the enormous Conchopata bowl-like urns measuring almost one metre in height, found in the region of Ayacucho, deposited, crushed and burned, in a special hole. The iconography of these pieces, featuring the central motif of the Gate of the Sun at Tiwanako, the “Staff God” or the “angels” on the same Gate, reflect the expansion of a cult that would finally extend throughout a large part of the region.
However, perhaps the most widespread function of pottery items in Ancient Peru was funereal. Dating from the Formative Period, both in the mountains and on the coast, thousands of tombs of very diverse type were raised or dug, although they all shared the common characteristic that thousands of “huacos”, pottery vessels, were placed in these graves, forming part of the funeral dowry that always accompanied figures of importance. Part of this horde of pottery had a utilitarian purpose, such as the food and liquid
receptacles for “nourishing” the corpse’s “spirit”. However, luxury pottery items were also deposited in the grave with the body, being made exclusively to be buried, and their iconographic message probably had something to do with the universe of beliefs of the creators. Museums and private collections all over the world possess thousands of Peruvian pottery items, whose origin or site of discovery is unknown, mainly due to the lucrative activity of the “huaqueros” who have plundered many tombs.
Cupisnique pottery is one of the oldest types of funereal pottery, in this case dating from the Formative Period on the North Coast. It was confused for many years with Chavin-type pottery, mainly due to its characteristic black colour, its forms and even its representations, that in some cases recall Chavin dragon-like depictions. Dating from the end of the Formative Period, the red pottery items retrieved from the tombs of Salinar, already anticipate, although in somewhat more stylized form, the sculptural models of Moche culture. Owls, monkeys and cats, modelled on bottles in quite realistic form, can be found alongside human beings depicted in much more stylized form, some engaging in sexual activities, these probably being the oldest representations of this kind in Peruvian pottery.
Also dating from the Formative Period, two spectacular discoveries of much more complex burials were made in Vicús and Paracas, on the North Coast and South Coast, respectively. The pottery items found already anticipate the marvellous pieces produced during the following period. The fact is that the burials dating from the end of the Formative Period and the Regional Developments Period are really the most spectacular of all, given that the sheer number and quality of the ceramic offerings are quite extraordinary. The reason for this burgeoning effort devoted to the life beyond the grave, with works of art even being made exclusively for the dead, must be understood within the Peruvian socio-political context of the time. The heads of the various lineages, the “kings” of the dominions spread throughout the various regions, became gods when they died, that is to say, supernatural beings who were worshipped as guardians and protectors, not only of their own family, but of their whole people. The supernatural and the real world were intimately related and confused, as we can see from the complex ceramic iconography of the period.
The chronology of the burials and pottery items of Vicús stretches from the Late Formative Period to the end of the Moche Period and provides the key to understanding the style that subsequently emerged. This was a strongly sculptural type of pottery, presenting an impressive artistic sense and strong influences from the Chorrera culture of Ecuador, which was located relatively nearby. The sculptured huacos depict snakes, crabs, cats and birds, although human figures are also common, such as warriors, water bearers, old people and musicians. These figures present stereotypical faces and non-personalized features, although they are still marvellously expressive, representing what may be understood as an attempt to surround the deceased with depictions of normal daily aspects of his life.
The funereal pottery of Paracas, discovered at the cemeteries of Cerro Colorado and Huari Kayan, provide the key in this case to the subsequent development of Nasca ceramics. Paracas pottery items present a series of rich designs and intense colours delineated with the help of incisions, painted after the firing process. The favourite theme was that of the cat, sometimes in highly stylized form, showing only a very rough outline of the head but always accompanied by its large incisors, which seems to indicate a Chavin influence and suggests the existence of some supernatural being depicted in this manner.
Nasca pottery stands out for its impressive use of many different colours, incorporating up to ten different basic colours. Its complex iconography, derived directly from Paracas, must be understood in the light of the changes that occurred throughout nine stylistic stages. However, in general terms, its themes can be grouped together into three categories. The naturalistic motifs depicted animals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and other sea creatures, flowers and plants. The religious or mythical motifs depicted fantastic creatures that combined attributes of human beings with those of various animals, featuring names such as the anthropomorphic being, the spotted cat, the horrible bird, the serpent-like creature, the mythical reaper and the harpy. Geometrical motifs, such as circles, bands, transverse lines and steps were generally used to separate friezes from other kinds of designs, except during later periods when these motifs sometimes played the leading role.
We can observe no naturalistic inclinations in Nasca art, since it is quite evident that much greater importance was given to the symbolism of the depiction. The Nasca used ceramics as
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