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movement of these objects must have formed part of a symbolic code of communication unknown to us, highlighted by the tinkling of the bells and chalchalchas (rattles) that hung from their ceremonial costumes (Carcedo and Vetter, 1999, p.182).
One of the best documented activities in the Moche workshops of Pampa Grande is copper working. From studying this skill, we can deduce that in centres such as this, the raw material reached the workshop already half-refined. That is to say, the prior process of smelting, fragmentation with a mortar (chungo and batán) and manual selection would have taken placed in the mining areas, being subsequently transported in llama caravans to the urban centres. Once there, it was taken to the craftsmen’s workshops in order to be re-smelted and partially refined in a smelting furnace and used to produce possible alloys, then being cast into ingots of refined metal which, after being tempered and forged, were then used to produce sheet metal of different thickness and size.
These sheets were carefully chosen, cut, decorated, soldered and assembled by metal-working specialists, thus obtaining the final product. The item was then very often decorated by applying the technique of filigree or by inlaying shells and precious and semi- precious stones (emeralds, malachite, chrysocolla, azurite). Appliqués of tiny multi- coloured feathers were even produced, as we can observe in the astonishing masks of Sican culture, that, along with tumi knives, constitute one of the best examples of multi- skilled specialization in the workshops of the North Coast.
The tools employed in these activities ranged from anvils to the hammers required to produce the sheet metal, not to mention chisels for cutting, engraving and repoussé work, punches for producing perforations, designs and marks, burins for engraving, needles for burnishing and rivet sets in which to work semi-spherical designs for creating necklace beads (Carcedo, 1999). This varied range of instruments denotes the existence of some highly complex techniques and specialized working methods, presumably associated with different social classes within artist and craftsmen’s circles.
In fact, the research carried out at Pampa Grande seems to prove that labour within the workshop was supervised by a master metal-worker, who would have enjoyed high status and who would have overseen a number of assistants or apprentices and specialists, whom he would have supplied with food and chicha (a beverage).
THE COLOURS OF METAL: GOLD AND THE SUN, SILVER AND THE MOON
In addition to sound and movement, colour was an aspect of high symbolic value in metal items. The Ancient Andeans created a series of admirable effects with colour, thanks to their ability to make the metal “lie” through their skill in producing artificial alloys (especially the alloy known as tumbaga), with which they created gilded, silvery, reddish and greenish hues, as well as glittering finishes.
We have seen how this tendency existed from the days of the Chavin Period, although it did not reach its peak until several centuries later. Above all, we might highlight the workshops of the Moche craftsmen, among whose technological innovations we find a number of ingenious techniques for beautifying metal surfaces by means of silver plating and, above all, gilding, effects produced by processes such as mise en couleur, as well as other highly sophisticated electrochemical procedures.
These craftsmen also liked to paint these objects with gold mixed with red cinnabar powder, commonly used within funeral contexts. This practice seems to date back to the Chavin period and was very widespread in other Meso-American and Old World cultures. According to the Jesuit, José Acosta, this powder was actually red lead, which “they call llimpi, which they valued highly due to the same effects that Pliny observed among the Romans and Ethiopians, which is to paint or dye their own faces and bodies or those of their idols with it” (Acosta [1590], 1987, p.242).
Given this substance’s highly toxic nature, it is doubtful that they used it for make-up, which means that the mythical Xam Muchec, who in Cabello Balboa’s account was responsible for the colours Ñaymlap used to adorn his face, must have used some other substance as face paint for his Lord, probably an extract taken from the annatto tree (Bixa orellana) for the red- orangey shades, then rubbing with grape juice (Bignonia chicha) to obtain a darker shade.
However, the colours that possessed the highest symbolic value were undoubtedly gold and silver, associated as they were with the Sun and the Moon, respectively.
These two planets expressed the duality of day and night, and the concept of duality was strongly rooted in the thought and iconography of Andean culture from the very beginning. With the development of metal-working technology, gold and silver became excellent vehicles for conveying this idea, enjoying their heyday during the Inca period.
Among the funeral furnishings of the marvellous royal tombs of Sipan, which we shall discuss in greater detail below, breastplates were discovered that had been made with gold and silver beads in the form of peanuts. Some of these breastplates presented gold beads on their right-hand side and silver beads on the left, in a clear reference to the idea of duality and the union of opposites.
Centuries later, these sacred metals were employed in order to adorn the most important buildings, with the Inca temple of Coricancha, in Cusco, being the most obvious example. This temple was devoted to the Sun God, although homage was also rendered to his wife, the Moon, a divinity attended by her own priestesses. According to the accounts we have, this building was covered in gold plates, and even the ashlar stones were held together with melted silver and gold, “which was the main cause of the destruction of these buildings, because given that these metals were found in some buildings, all of them were destroyed in the search for gold and silver” (Garcilaso [1609], 1991, p.327). The most spectacular sight, however, would have been the Garden of the Sun, in which the clods of earth, plants, trees, exotic animals and real-size human beings were reproduced in gold and silver, using a casting technique.
We can observe how the Incas introduced a number of interesting innovations in artistic production, based on their skill in organizing the labour of specialists who came from all corners of the empire, trained in the stylistic traditions of the different cultures to which they belonged (Chimus and Chancas, in general).
FEATHERS, METALS AND SHELLS FOR THE LIFE BEYOND THE GRAVE
As we mentioned above, the Valley of Lambayeque was the burial site for a number of important figures belonging to the Moche royal circle, whose funeral furnishings included a surprising number of metallic objects incrusted with precious stones, shells, pottery, feathers and delicate textiles. We are referring to the royal tombs of Sipan excavated over the last two decades (Alva, 1994 and 2001).
In our opinion, the reiterated presence of elements relating to the sky (feathers), the earth (metals) and the marine environment (shells) seem to be associated with the idea of the cosmos and their beliefs in the life beyond the grave, a tradition that continued to be perpetuated over subsequent centuries. Furthermore, the combination of fiery elements, such as metal, and others associated with water, such as shells, could be understood as expressions of the concept of duality to which we have referred.
The shell preferred for creating these objects was Spondylus princeps, taken from the warm waters of the Ecuadorian Pacific and of a delicate rose colour. The Ancients called it mullu, and according to their beliefs the primitive gods used it as nourishment. In addition to being employed for all types of ornaments, it was also ground down in order to be scattered over the earth where the most important Lords passed. We have already seen how, in Cabello Balboa’s account, this task was entrusted to a skilled attendant called Fonga Sigde. This custom was also adopted within Inca circles, given that according to the account offered by Martín de Murúa of the royal marriage of Huáscar Inca, where the bride “walked with her husband, the entire path was strewn with powdered gold and silver and infinite chaquira [shell necklaces] and feathers” (Murúa [1611], 1992, p.116), that is to say, the three elements that refer to the tripartite division of the cosmos: water, earth and sky.
From the waters of the Pacific also came the famous snail known as Strombus gigas, which was used as a trumpet-like musical instrument, such as the one played by Pita Zofi in the legendary retinue of Ñaymlap and like the instruments played by the trumpeters who, alongside other musicians playing the pan pipes, “quenas” or Indian flutes, maracas and percussion instruments, formed part of the magnificent military processions, which are marvellously depicted on Moche pottery.
In these representations, the main characters tend to be adorned with whimsical head-dresses made of fine feathers, holding staffs from which feathers also hang down. The most commonly used feathers in this respect came from the red macaw (Ara macao)
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